Psychological problems of measurement of regeneration of fascism, autoritarianism, and totalitarianism in society: toward synthetic scale construction
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Abstract
Relevancy. The Russian-Ukrainian war intensified the need for a deep understanding of human psychology in a totalitarian society, sources and mechanisms of support for crimes committed by a terrorist state.
The purpose of the article is to analyze the international experience of the operationalization of concepts and tools for psychological measurement of the tendency to totalitarianism.
Methodology. The results of the cognitive analysis of semantic units in the questions used in the methods of measuring fascism-authoritarianism-totalitarianism (FAT) in various concepts (Altemeyer's right-wing authoritarianism, Pratt's social dominance, Mehrabyan's libertarianism, Megales' support for democracy, Silva's populism support) are presented.
Results. he historical persistence and contradictions in the use of the concept of totalitarianism through the prism of the group-reflexive approach are traced, and the proposal to consider the aggregate synthetic concept of the tendency to reproduce the common features of FAT is substantiated since at the psychological level the phenomena described by different terms have common social psychological prerequisites. An understanding of FAT as a media-psychological psy-phenomenon of mass consciousness is proposed. The fundamental shortcomings of using questionnaires and subjective scaling methods to assess the propensity to totalitarianism in connection with the characteristic state of consciousness of a person in a totalitarian and post-totalitarian society - double-mindedness - are outlined. Ways to overcome these limitations in measurement are analyzed based on the experience of constructing methods for measuring Petrovich's double-mindedness, Bruder's conspiratorial mentality, Cachioppo's cognitive needs, Frederick's cognitive reflection, Zavala's and Zhomoitei's collective narcissism, envy scales, Klisperova's need for satisfaction and others.
The practical significance of the obtained results is related to the prospect of developing the models for measuring the propensity to FAT are discussed, taking into account modern hybrid ideological forms of totalitarianism.
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Naydonov, M., Naydonova, L., & Hryhorovska, L. (2022). Psychological problems of measurement of regeneration of fascism, autoritarianism, and totalitarianism in society: toward synthetic scale construction. Problems of Political Psychology, 11(25), 99-125. https://doi.org/10.33120/popp-Vol25-Year2022-89
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References
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Bruder, M., Haffke, P., Neave, N., Nouripanah, N., & Imhoff, R. (2013). Measuring Individual Differences in Generic Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Across Cultures: Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00225 (in English)
Bruno Castanho Silva, Ioannis Andreadis, Eva Anduiza, Nebojša Blanuša, Yazmin Morlet Corti, Gisela Delfino, Guillem Rico, et al. (2018). Public Opinion Surveys: A New Scale. In Kirk Hawkins, Ryan Carlin, Levente Littvay, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser (edited by), The Ideational Approach to Populism: Theory, Method & Analysis, рр. 150–178. London: Routledge. (Executive Memo on a new Populist Attitudes Scale) (in English)
Bruno Castanho Silva, Sebastian Jungkunz, Marc Helbling, and Levente Littvay. (2019). An Empirical Comparison of Seven Populist Attitudes Scales. Political Research Quarterly, 1–16. Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions doi: 10.1177/1065912919833176 journals.sagepub.com/home/prq (in English)
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 116–131 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116 (in English)
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., Esses, V. M. (2010). The SAGE Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination. SAGE Publications Ltd. (in English)
Duckitt, J. (2001). A dual-process cognitive-motivational theory of ideology and prejudice. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 33, pp. 41–114). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/S0065- 2601(01)80004-6 (in English)
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). Personality, ideology, prejudice, and politics: A dual-process motivational model. Journal of Personality, 78, 1861–1894. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00672.x (in English)
Eatwell, R., Goodwin, M. (2018). National Populism: The Revolt Against Liberal Democracy. Pelican Books. (in English)
Filimowicz, M. (2022). Digital Totalitarianism: Algorithms and Society. Routledge. (in English)
Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4), 25–42. doi:10.1257/089533005775196732 (in English)
Klicperova-Baker, M., Kostal, J. (2017). Post-communist democracy vs. totalitarianism: Contrasting patterns of need satisfaction and societal frustration. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 50, № 2, pp. 99–111. (in English)
Lange, J., & Crusius, J. (2014). Dispositional Envy Revisited: Unraveling the Motivational Dynamics of Benign and Malicious Envy. Personality and Social Psychology. Bulletin, 41(2), 284–294. doi:10.1177/0146167214564959 (BeMas) (in English)
Leach, C. W., Zomeren, M. van, Zebel, S., Vliek, M. L. W., Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., … Spears, R. (2008). Group-level self-definition and self-investment: A hierarchical (multicomponent) model of in-group identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 144–165. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.144 (in English)
Magalhães, P. C. (2013). Government effectiveness and support for democracy. European Journal of Political Research, 53(1), 77–97. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12024 (in English)
Magalhães, P. C. (2014). Government effectiveness and support for democracy. European Journal of Political Research, 53, 77–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12024 (in English)
Marchlewska, M., Castellanos, K. A., Lewczuk, K., Kofta, M., & Cichocka, A. (2018). My way or the highway: High narcissism and low self-esteem predict decreased support for democracy. British Journal of Social Psychology. doi:10.1111/bjso.12290 (in English)
Mehrabian, A. (1996). Relations Among Political Attitudes, Personality, and Psychopathology Assessed With New Measures of Libertarianism and Conservatism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 18(4), 469–491. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1804_7. To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1804_7 (in English)
Moore, B. Jr. (1973). Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Penguin Books (in English)
Naydonov, M. I. (2011). Filtry hrupovoi refleksii v sotsialnii sytuatsii osobystisnoho ta suspilnoho rozvytku [Filters of group reflection in social situations of personal and social development]. Aktualni problemy psykholohii. Vol. XII. Psykholohiia tvorchosti, 13, 306–310. (in Ukrainian)
Naydonov, M. I. (2010). Potentsial ta aktualizatsiia subiektnosti z pozytsii pereosmyslennia yii yak resursu [The potential and actualization of subjectivity from the point of view of reinterpretation of as a resource]. Visnyk Odeskoho natsionalnoho universytetu. (Seriia «Psykholohiia»). Vol. 15. Is. 11. Part 2, pp. 84–93. (in Ukrainian)
Naydonov, M. I. (2009). Refleksyvnyi intentsional dyskursu: do liderskoi pozytsii psykholohii v mizhhaluzevomu znanni [Reflexive intentionality of discourse: towards the leadership position of psychology in interdisciplinary knowledge]. Naukovi studii iz sotsialnoi ta politychnoi psykholohii, 23 (26), 46–66. (in Ukrainian)
Naydonov, M. I. (2012). Zbahachenist vzaiemodii suspilstva ta osvity: hrup-refleksyvnyi pidkhid [Enrichment of the interaction of society and education: group-reflexive approach]. Psykholohichni perspektyvy. Is. «Aktualni problemy psykholohii malykh, serednikh ta velykykh hrup». Vol. 2. Problema tsilisnosti suspilʹstva, hrupy ta osobystosti, pp. 186–204. (in Ukrainian)
Passmore, K. (2002). Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. (in English)
Paxton, R.O. (2004). The Anatomy of Fascism. Knopf. (in English)
Petrović, M. B., & Žeželj, I. (2021). Thinking Inconsistently: Development and Validation of an Instrument for Assessing Proneness to Doublethink. European Journal of Psychological Assessment. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000645 (in English)
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L., & Malle, B. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741–763. (in English)
Roberts, C. P., Uden, D. R., Allen, C. R., & Twidwell, D. (2018). Doublethink and scale mismatch polarize policies for an invasive tree. PLOS ONE, 13(3), e0189733. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189733 (in English)
Sannikova, O. P., & Lisovenko, A. F. (2015). Uiavlennia studentiv pro fenomen «zazdrist» [Students' ideas about the phenomenon of «envy»]. Science and Education a New Dimension. Pedagogy and Psychology, III(29), 57, 72–75. (in English)
Slyusarevskyy, M. (Ed.) (2022). Terminolohichnyi slovnyk rosiisko-ukrainskoi viiny [Terminological dictionary of the Russian-Ukrainian war]. Kyiv: In-t sotsialnoi ta politychnoi psykholohii NAPN Ukrainy. (in Ukrainian)
Spector, P. E. (1988). Development of the Work Locus of Control Scale. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 61, 335-340. (in English)
Tang, W. (2016). Populist authoritarianism: Chinese political culture and regime sustainability. Oxford University Press. (in English)
Traverso, E. (2019). The New Faces of Fascism: Populism and the Far Right. Verso. (in English)
Zavala, A. G. de, Cichocka, A., & Bilewicz, M. (2013). The Paradox of In-Group Love: Differentiating Collective Narcissism Advances Understanding of the Relationship Between In-Group and Out-Group Attitudes. Journal of Personality, 81(1), 16–28. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00779.x (in English)
Zavala, A. G. de, Cichocka, A., Eidelson, R., & Jayawickreme, N. (2009). Collective narcissism and its social consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1074–1096. doi:10.1037/a0016904 (in English)
Zavala, A. G. de, Cichocka, A., & Iskra-Golec, I. (2013). Collective narcissism moderates the effect of in-group image threat on intergroup hostility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 1019–1039. doi:10.1037/a0032215 (in English)
Żemojtel‐Piotrowska, M., Piotrowski, J., Sedikides, C., Sawicki, A., Czarna, A. Z., Fatfouta, R., & Baran, T. (2021). Communal collective narcissism. Journal of Personality. doi:10.1111/jopy.12636 (in English)
Arendt, H. (1973). The Origins of Totalitarianism. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. (in English)
Baehr, Р. (2010). Hannah Arendt, Totalitarianism, and the Social Sciences. Stanford University Press. (in English)
Beskova, T. V. (2012). Metodika issledovaniya zavistlivosti lichnosti [Methodology for the study of personality envy]. Voprosy psikhologii, 2, 127–141. (in Russian)
Beskova, T. V. (2013). Sotsialno-psikhologicheskaya struktura i determinanty zavisti [Socio-psychological structure and determinants of envy]. Saratov: Izd-vo Sarat. Un-ta. (in Russian)
Bruder, M., Haffke, P., Neave, N., Nouripanah, N., & Imhoff, R. (2013). Measuring Individual Differences in Generic Beliefs in Conspiracy Theories Across Cultures: Conspiracy Mentality Questionnaire. Frontiers in Psychology, 4. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00225 (in English)
Bruno Castanho Silva, Ioannis Andreadis, Eva Anduiza, Nebojša Blanuša, Yazmin Morlet Corti, Gisela Delfino, Guillem Rico, et al. (2018). Public Opinion Surveys: A New Scale. In Kirk Hawkins, Ryan Carlin, Levente Littvay, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser (edited by), The Ideational Approach to Populism: Theory, Method & Analysis, рр. 150–178. London: Routledge. (Executive Memo on a new Populist Attitudes Scale) (in English)
Bruno Castanho Silva, Sebastian Jungkunz, Marc Helbling, and Levente Littvay. (2019). An Empirical Comparison of Seven Populist Attitudes Scales. Political Research Quarterly, 1–16. Article reuse guidelines: sagepub.com/journals-permissions doi: 10.1177/1065912919833176 journals.sagepub.com/home/prq (in English)
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42(1), 116–131 doi:10.1037/0022-3514.42.1.116 (in English)
Dovidio, J. F., Hewstone, M., Glick, P., Esses, V. M. (2010). The SAGE Handbook of Prejudice, Stereotyping and Discrimination. SAGE Publications Ltd. (in English)
Duckitt, J. (2001). A dual-process cognitive-motivational theory of ideology and prejudice. In M. P. Zanna (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 33, pp. 41–114). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. doi:10.1016/S0065- 2601(01)80004-6 (in English)
Duckitt, J., & Sibley, C. G. (2010). Personality, ideology, prejudice, and politics: A dual-process motivational model. Journal of Personality, 78, 1861–1894. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00672.x (in English)
Eatwell, R., Goodwin, M. (2018). National Populism: The Revolt Against Liberal Democracy. Pelican Books. (in English)
Filimowicz, M. (2022). Digital Totalitarianism: Algorithms and Society. Routledge. (in English)
Frederick, S. (2005). Cognitive Reflection and Decision Making. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 19(4), 25–42. doi:10.1257/089533005775196732 (in English)
Klicperova-Baker, M., Kostal, J. (2017). Post-communist democracy vs. totalitarianism: Contrasting patterns of need satisfaction and societal frustration. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, Vol. 50, № 2, pp. 99–111. (in English)
Lange, J., & Crusius, J. (2014). Dispositional Envy Revisited: Unraveling the Motivational Dynamics of Benign and Malicious Envy. Personality and Social Psychology. Bulletin, 41(2), 284–294. doi:10.1177/0146167214564959 (BeMas) (in English)
Leach, C. W., Zomeren, M. van, Zebel, S., Vliek, M. L. W., Pennekamp, S. F., Doosje, B., … Spears, R. (2008). Group-level self-definition and self-investment: A hierarchical (multicomponent) model of in-group identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95(1), 144–165. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.95.1.144 (in English)
Magalhães, P. C. (2013). Government effectiveness and support for democracy. European Journal of Political Research, 53(1), 77–97. doi:10.1111/1475-6765.12024 (in English)
Magalhães, P. C. (2014). Government effectiveness and support for democracy. European Journal of Political Research, 53, 77–97. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.12024 (in English)
Marchlewska, M., Castellanos, K. A., Lewczuk, K., Kofta, M., & Cichocka, A. (2018). My way or the highway: High narcissism and low self-esteem predict decreased support for democracy. British Journal of Social Psychology. doi:10.1111/bjso.12290 (in English)
Mehrabian, A. (1996). Relations Among Political Attitudes, Personality, and Psychopathology Assessed With New Measures of Libertarianism and Conservatism. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 18(4), 469–491. doi:10.1207/s15324834basp1804_7. To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/s15324834basp1804_7 (in English)
Moore, B. Jr. (1973). Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World. Penguin Books (in English)
Naydonov, M. I. (2011). Filtry hrupovoi refleksii v sotsialnii sytuatsii osobystisnoho ta suspilnoho rozvytku [Filters of group reflection in social situations of personal and social development]. Aktualni problemy psykholohii. Vol. XII. Psykholohiia tvorchosti, 13, 306–310. (in Ukrainian)
Naydonov, M. I. (2010). Potentsial ta aktualizatsiia subiektnosti z pozytsii pereosmyslennia yii yak resursu [The potential and actualization of subjectivity from the point of view of reinterpretation of as a resource]. Visnyk Odeskoho natsionalnoho universytetu. (Seriia «Psykholohiia»). Vol. 15. Is. 11. Part 2, pp. 84–93. (in Ukrainian)
Naydonov, M. I. (2009). Refleksyvnyi intentsional dyskursu: do liderskoi pozytsii psykholohii v mizhhaluzevomu znanni [Reflexive intentionality of discourse: towards the leadership position of psychology in interdisciplinary knowledge]. Naukovi studii iz sotsialnoi ta politychnoi psykholohii, 23 (26), 46–66. (in Ukrainian)
Naydonov, M. I. (2012). Zbahachenist vzaiemodii suspilstva ta osvity: hrup-refleksyvnyi pidkhid [Enrichment of the interaction of society and education: group-reflexive approach]. Psykholohichni perspektyvy. Is. «Aktualni problemy psykholohii malykh, serednikh ta velykykh hrup». Vol. 2. Problema tsilisnosti suspilʹstva, hrupy ta osobystosti, pp. 186–204. (in Ukrainian)
Passmore, K. (2002). Fascism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. (in English)
Paxton, R.O. (2004). The Anatomy of Fascism. Knopf. (in English)
Petrović, M. B., & Žeželj, I. (2021). Thinking Inconsistently: Development and Validation of an Instrument for Assessing Proneness to Doublethink. European Journal of Psychological Assessment. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000645 (in English)
Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L., & Malle, B. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741–763. (in English)
Roberts, C. P., Uden, D. R., Allen, C. R., & Twidwell, D. (2018). Doublethink and scale mismatch polarize policies for an invasive tree. PLOS ONE, 13(3), e0189733. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0189733 (in English)
Sannikova, O. P., & Lisovenko, A. F. (2015). Uiavlennia studentiv pro fenomen «zazdrist» [Students' ideas about the phenomenon of «envy»]. Science and Education a New Dimension. Pedagogy and Psychology, III(29), 57, 72–75. (in English)
Slyusarevskyy, M. (Ed.) (2022). Terminolohichnyi slovnyk rosiisko-ukrainskoi viiny [Terminological dictionary of the Russian-Ukrainian war]. Kyiv: In-t sotsialnoi ta politychnoi psykholohii NAPN Ukrainy. (in Ukrainian)
Spector, P. E. (1988). Development of the Work Locus of Control Scale. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 61, 335-340. (in English)
Tang, W. (2016). Populist authoritarianism: Chinese political culture and regime sustainability. Oxford University Press. (in English)
Traverso, E. (2019). The New Faces of Fascism: Populism and the Far Right. Verso. (in English)
Zavala, A. G. de, Cichocka, A., & Bilewicz, M. (2013). The Paradox of In-Group Love: Differentiating Collective Narcissism Advances Understanding of the Relationship Between In-Group and Out-Group Attitudes. Journal of Personality, 81(1), 16–28. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2012.00779.x (in English)
Zavala, A. G. de, Cichocka, A., Eidelson, R., & Jayawickreme, N. (2009). Collective narcissism and its social consequences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 97(6), 1074–1096. doi:10.1037/a0016904 (in English)
Zavala, A. G. de, Cichocka, A., & Iskra-Golec, I. (2013). Collective narcissism moderates the effect of in-group image threat on intergroup hostility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 104, 1019–1039. doi:10.1037/a0032215 (in English)
Żemojtel‐Piotrowska, M., Piotrowski, J., Sedikides, C., Sawicki, A., Czarna, A. Z., Fatfouta, R., & Baran, T. (2021). Communal collective narcissism. Journal of Personality. doi:10.1111/jopy.12636 (in English)